Eur. Phys. J. H 37, 413-458 (2012)
https://doi.org/10.1140/epjh/e2012-30017-2

Direct observations of galactic cosmic rays

Enrico Fermi Institute, The University of Chicago, 933 East 56th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA

^a e-mail: dmuller@uchicago.edu

Received: 6 April 2012
Received in final form: 15 May 2012
Published online: 25 July 2012

Abstract

The mysterious “radiation ... entering our atmosphere from above” discovered by Hess in 1912 is now known to be dominated by relativistic charged particles, mostly with energies in the GeV-range, but extending to energies higher by many orders of magnitude. As none of these particles can penetrate the earth’s atmosphere without interaction, detailed studies of their composition and energy spectra require observations with high-altitude balloons or spacecraft. This became possible only towards the middle of the 20th century. The direct measurements have now revealed much detail about the Galactic cosmic rays below 10¹⁵eV, but do not yet provide much overlap with the air-shower region of energies. A historic overview of the measurements is given, beginning with the realization that the majority of the cosmic rays are protons. The discovery and astrophysical significance of the heavier nuclei, and of the ultra-heavy nuclei beyond iron and up to the actinides, are then described, and measurements of the isotopic composition are discussed. Observations of the individual energy spectra are reviewed, and finally, the detection of electrons, positrons, and anti-protons in the cosmic rays, and the searches for exotic or unusual phenomena are summarized. Emphasis is given to the fact that all of these discoveries have become possible through the evolution of increasingly sophisticated detection techniques, a process that is continuing through the present time. The precise knowledge of the abundance distributions of the elements in the cosmic rays and of their isotopic composition permits a comparison with the “universal abundance scale” and provides strong constraints on the origin of the cosmic-ray material in the interstellar medium. “Clock-isotopes” reveal the time history of the particles. The shapes of the energy spectra of the individual cosmic-ray components are related to evolving ideas about particle acceleration and propagation in the Galaxy. In conclusion, prospects for future work are briefly discussed.